ENGL 410W: Topics in Early Modern English Non-Dramatic Literature
Tales from the ‘Fabulous Dark Cloister:’ Romance in Renaissance England
Simon Fraser University Summer 2008 Professor Tiffany Alkan
Saturday, June 7, 2008
6/12 Johnson's Seven Champions
In Johnson's text, we see a free mingling of allusions to both pagan gods and the Christian God as well as a blurring between saints and national heroes. What seems to be the Richard Johnson's attitude towards magic or miracle?
Johnson seems to be completely open and ready to accept the idea of miracles; The Seven Champions is littered with miraculous incidents and Johnson uses miracles in order to get his hero and heroine out of a variety of compromising positions. When Sabra and the Evenuke are cornered by two lions (and Evenuke is kelled by them), Sabra is spared only because she is still a virgin and by nature, the lion does not "harme the unspotted virgin, but humbly lay[s] his brisled heade upon a maidens lappe" (Johnson 76). Later on, when the seven virgins are ravished and murdered by the giant, Sabra once again avoids danger by squeezing a toad to death, causing its vemon to squirt all over her face, giving her blisters and causing her to look as if she had leprosy. Johnson continually puts Sabra in the face of danger, possibly for suspense purposes, and uses miraculous coincidences to save her. This makes for an entertaining story, and Johnson undoubtedly realized the appeal of miracles in his text.
Johnson’s attitude would appear to be that miracles are associated with the Christian God; when someone is doing His will, there is nothing that can stand against him/her. For example, when Saint George goes to Persia and gets upset over the pagan rituals being performed, he is given miraculous strength and courage and is able to kill thousands of men even though he himself is only one man. This miraculous event is explained as being a just and righteous cause because Saint George is fighting against heathens and unbelievers, and their pagan gods. This event seems to show that the Christian God is stronger and more powerful than the pagan gods of Egypt and Persia. In contrast to miracle, magic seems to be something associated with pagan worship and is something to be used for evil purposes. For example, the tower built with the art of magic by a cunning Nigromancer in the country of the Amazonians. This tower is a thing of evil that is choking the land and quenching “the brightnes of the Skye” (Johnson, 116). Magic, although powerful, can still be defeated by the power of the Christian God as seen when Saint George breaks the magic spell in the name of the Lord. This mingling of magic and miracle seems to be Johnson’s way of proving that God and the miraculous are more powerful than magic and therefore that is where your faith should be.
In one of our first few lectures we defined magic as being a human intervention and miracle as an intervention from God. Richard Johnson accepts both magic and miracle throughout his text and I agree with Kathryn in that Johnson often associates miracles with the Christian God, and the heroes such as Saint George and associates magic with those who are evil, such as Kalyb, the Lady of the woods who keeps the Champions of Christendome imprisoned. However, I believe that Johnson also points out that there is a blur between magic and miracle and that they can not always be separated into one being good and the other evil. For example Saint George first tries to slay the dragon himself (13) but is not successful, and it is only when he kneels down and prays for strength and agility of body from God (14) that he is able to defeat the dragon. Therefore it is a miracle from God that helps him slay the dragon, but Saint George also would not have been victorious without that use of magic when he eats the magical fruit that restores his health (13). In this case Richard seems to be saying that magic can also be good and that magic and miracles can be used together for good. If magic is a human intervention and miracle is an intervention from God, then by having Saint George use both magic and miracle Richard seems to be saying that humans and God should work together for the greater good, rather than humans just relying on God for everything.
I agree with the idea that there is a blur between magic and miracle in the text. I think this is specifically evident in the character of Sabra when she is trying to escape from the giant (121). It is described that Sabra is “making her supplication to the Gods” and “that they would in mercie defend her chastetie”. At this point Sabra is hoping (or praying?) for a miracle, and looks to divine inspiration. Upon Sabra’s words to God, she sees a toad and uses the toad’s venom to cause “loathsome blisters” to develop on her face. Since divine inspiration appears to assist Sabra in this particular situation, it can be suggested that it is a “miracle”. After the giant leaves, Sabra then pleads with God to “rid [her] from the vale of miserie,” expressing that she is “disformed,” and will remain in the grove “till the heavens either bring mee to my former beauty or ende my languishing misery”. In this instance, rather than being thankful to God for granting a “miracle” and saving her from the giant, Sabra is more concerned with her vanity. By the end of the chapter, however, it is described how the “Amazonian Queene had cured her leprosie by the secret virtue of her skill” (123). I think that because the word “skill” is used in this description, it suggests an act of “manipulation” and a sense of “human intervention” rather than “divine inspiration” (indicating “magic” rather than “miracle”). Does this mean that Sabra has given up on miracles (or God) and resorted to the use of magic? Or does it relate back to the suggestion that it is hard to determine the difference between miracle and magic?
I think that Debra brings up an interesting point, wondering whether SAbra has given up on God and resorted to magic. THroughout the text I found that besides alluding to her preserved virginity, Sabra does not really seem that spiritual a person. Johnson has St. George constantly praying to and praising God for his help and guidance, and thanks him for getting him out of the various dangerous situations he gets himself into. Sabra, on the other hand, does not ever seem to thank God for helping her out of danger, but rather concentrates her gratitude on her knight, St. George. Sabra does not seem like a very spiritual person; she is far too concerned with preserving her virginity than her relationship with God.
I agree with the idea that Johnson has blurred the lines between magic and miracle. As well that at certain times one helps out the other so that the characters can overcome the challenges that have been put in his or hers way. On the other hand the way that Johnson writes about Kalyb seems to illustrate to the reader that there will come a day when not having some faith or belief in God could be detrimental to one self. For example once Kalyb has been imprisoned by Saint George, it seems that she is being punished for having invested so much time in the world of magic and turning away from God. Not only had she turned to a life of magic but she also imprisoned both Saints/ national hero’s which would seem to be frowned upon especially since Saints and national hero’s were held in high regard. Johnson balances the idea of believing in magic and miracles and shows that both have a place were they are needed.
Johnson seems to play with the idea of miracle and magic within his text. It is apparent that Johnson associated miracles with the Christian God and magic with strongly associated with pagan worship. Both miracle and magic require some sort of force from another world, both can be used for the purpose of good and magic can be used for an evil purpose. Both miracle and magic are needed as a means of testing the free will of the mortals and separating the heroes from the drifters. Johnson seems to play with the idea of magic and miracles yet focuses on only good power will rest in the hands of God. It is important to note the undeniable devotion Saint George has as he relentlessly prays before God and praises him and honours him when there is good fortune in his life. The question of devotion arises as Jessica has mentioned that Sabra is not a very spiritual person and focuses on the power of magic, yet she concerns herself with the preservation of her virginity. I can not help but feel as though Johnson maybe trying to address the changing religious perspectives in the world. To me Johnson is informing the reader that not having a strong faith in the Christian God is not bad, however it is important to have faith in ourselves as individuals as there is a place in this world for all types of spiritual belief. In addition, Sabra engages with magic rather than miracles and faith, yet she still honours Saint George, can this be considered as her saving grace?
I agree with the idea that miracles are associated with God and good, while magic has a more negative connotation. Magic often seems to be associated with power, and perhaps Johnson is trying to point out that too much power can be destructive. Also, magic can forsake you, while God and miracles do not. Kalyb, for example, is bound in a rock that she put a spell on, and Osmond’s conjured spirits abandon him when they are defeated It is not always easy to differentiate between good and evil and this story questions a person’s trust with things unnatural and natural. Often, good is associated with the natural and bad with unnatural. Natural beings, like lions and tigers are just as dangerous as the dragon and the giant who are unnatural (at the same time, the magical orange tree is also unnatural but it saves Saint George). Because George does not slay the giant, he shows that he trusts him enough to be his servant. His trust is betrayed when he finds that the giant raped and killed seven maids and was about to do the same to Sabra. George kills the lions that have come to Sabra and killed the Eunuke, even though they have done Sabra no harm. This shows that it is difficult to decipher between good and evil in terms of natural and unnatural and it may be dangerous to put trust in either. Johnson’s blending of the two, like the blending of magic and miracle, makes the reader question what is true and good.
Although I agree that Johnson is open to magic or miracles I also agree with those who argue that in the name of God miracles occur. My favourite moment of a God miracle is when George is under the orange tree while fighting the dragon and eating the fruit is what saves him-is this perhaps an inverse of original sin? Since the fruit cured him with its good magic? The national heroes definitely resemble a romance hero (Johnson even says at one point that they suited up like wandering heroes) and they fight pagan magic with christian miracles. That would be the distinction I would make. The inchantress for instance is an example of pagan magic defeated by a christian miracle (George himself). When she is dismembered and scattered throughout the forest she turns the woods into an evil place, thus showing the debased nature of her pagan magic. The pagan imagery that is scattered throughout seems to be for the purposes of tropes and story-telling. In other words, though there is pagan imagery used to tell the story, it is used for that purpose specifically-tropes, which add to the narrative.
I agree with Marianne that Johnson blurs the divide between magic and miracle, and would like to take her argument further. Continuing on Marianne’s examples of the magic of the orange tree and the prayer to god that helped Saint George slay the dragon, one can see how Johnson makes a definitive distinction between the powers of magic and the powers of god. Yet the lines are once again blurred in this scene because of the questionable outcome of whether it was the magic of the oranges that helped Saint George recover enough times to continue to slay the dragon, or whether it was the power of God guiding him. The question that needs to be addressed is whether the Orange tree is magic or miracle. Given the information that the “tree had such pretious virtue, that no venomous worme durst come within the compasse of the branches” (13) which revives the knights spirits, one could question whether the tree is a gift of god, that contains such virtue and goodness that it can resurrect the knight from certain death. Alternatively the tree contains magical properties that prevent the dragon from coming close to it, yet has many evil implications derived from the bible. In the story of Adam and Eve, the apple tree is the tree of knowledge of good and evil that will surely bring death to whomever eats it. Similarly, in The Seven Champions of Christendom, a fruit tree is given powerful properties to revive the knight, and after being revived once, and damaged shortly after, it is knowledge or “good memorie remaining” (13) that allows the knight to remember the reviving qualities of the fruit so that he may eat again and have the strength to destroy the dragon. The dragon itself is also called a “worme” (13), which gives it the image of an evil serpent or snake like creature. As the fruit only rejuvenates the knight, and does not aid his strength in slaying the dragon, one will understand that it is the power of God that gives the knight enough strength to slay the dragon, seeing as the knight fails every attempt after only eating the fruit. Thus we can see how although magic and miracle both share powerful properties, miracle is the ultimate higher power because miracle is always deemed to be good, and destroyer of evil, whereas magic can be either a property for good or evil in this text.
I agree with Lucy's point on magic being related to power. For Johnson magic, as its in humans control, can be taken by anyone, though mostly with evil connotations. Miracle on the other hand is given only to those that deserve and well as proving that they deserve it. Saint George "defeats" Kalybs and is rewarded with the "miracle" orange that helps him fight the dragon.
Kalybs is quite literally trapped by her own magic and is the reason for her death. The unpure, sinful nature of magic thus will result in the user's own destruction, whereas miracle helps to save the person. Some of Saint George's "miracles" especially those in Persia, look to both the Soldan and to me, quite monsterous. Being able to rip the heart out of the Lions throats and kill all those men, seems less miraculous and more magical. Although Johnson sets up a binary between what is magic (evil) and what is miracle (good), they seem to blend more as the story unfolds.
Johnson's text is filled with allusions to pagan gods and it appears that these allusions tend to overlap or blur with allusions of the Christian God. At the beginning of the Seven Champions of Christendom it is said that Saint George was created by nature and conceived of a dragon. While the idea of Saint George being created by nature can be related to the Christian God the idea of the dragon seems to be magical as this dragon is later described as evil. Further reference to magic is visble when Kalyb steals Saint George by the use of witchcraft as well as when Saint George himself uses a wand to trap Kalyb in a stone. Through Saint George's use of the wand and Kalyb saying "woe to all my Magicke spels: for they have bound me in this hollowe rock" (10)we can see magic as both a negative and a positive thing. On one hand magic traps Kalyb in the stone, which is bad for Kalyb, but on the other Saint George is able to rid himself of Kalyb through the use of magic, which shows magic as being a useful tool. Additionally the pearl necklace that Sabra wears to protect her virginity can be seen as positive. In addition the use of the orange tree as a safe haven utilizes nature or God as a protector, but nature is not always shown in this light. This other side of nature is visible when Saint Dennis the Champion of France is transformed into a deformed beast when he eats berries off of a tree. Thus through revealing positive and negative aspects of both nature and magic Johnson appears to believe that magic can be good or bad depending on how it is used. Thus it does not appear that Johnson condemns magic or views it as evil, but instead sees that there can be both negative and positive means of perceiving it.
In Johnson's text, we see a free mingling of allusions to both pagan gods and the Christian God as well as a blurring between saints and national heroes. What seems to be the Richard Johnson's attitude towards magic or miracle?
Johnson seems to incorporate his attitude towards magic and miracle in this text. I find that in chapter one of the text we get many allusions to magic; he speaks of the mystical oracle and enchanted cave (7) as he sets the introduction of story. He then starts to show us the transition from magic to miracle. I agree with the others that miracle is associated with a Christian god. On page 11, we see Kalybs turn from magic: “Kalybs charmes tooke no effect, for her Magick no longer indured,” to religion: “therefore in fearfull manner she began to make her Will and latest Testament.” (11) I interpreted this as fear being a motivating factor for this character to turn to religion, much like the way we turn to miracles to help us out of uncontrollable situations. I also like how Candace observed the connection between the orange tree and the apple tree of Eden. I found this ironic that eating the orange saved him, when eating the apple condemned Eden to a lifetime of original sin. Also, was the fruit a symbol of a miracle and the dragon symbolic of magic? If so, did George’s victory prove that a miracle is stronger than magic? Or that religion is stronger than paganism?
I have a real sense of Johnson’s attitude as not so much ‘blurring the lines’ and more of an appropriation. Johnson has an apparent fondness for the old legends and romances (Greek myths and Arthurian) that he can’t resist adopting into his text – it’s an attempt to redeem what might otherwise be seen as the pagan elements of the story. One clear distinction between miracles and magic is the gender of the user. Magic is largely in the hands of misguided women, who are consequently subject to “the judgments of the heavens” (77). As Marianne and Sharlene note, magic oranges are pretty suspect, yet they are considered Godly Miracles, likely because it was St. George and his horse and not...Kalyb for example, that needed help [even though it was Kalyb who gave George the ‘virtuous steed’ (79)]. In this text we start to see a real differentiation between gender balances that associates ‘bad/evil magic’ with women. In previous texts the gender association has been one of crossing boundaries – women taking men’s power. In this text the women are permitted their own power that is on par with men (does Kalyb do anything really repulsive, beyond taking the baby?) however it is automatically ‘magic’ and not ‘miracle’ and therefore punishable. In this manner Johnson is able to incorporate the fantastic, the romance, into his story without completely making it acceptable – which to readers in the time would be shocking. Instead he puts what is unacceptable in the hands of the weaker sex. Note the differentiation between where “the lamp of Heaven doth lend his light, before he tie himself to the troublesome state of marriage” (80). Women don’t understand value, as “thy body is more precious to myne eyes than Kingdoms in my heart” (80) (the religious reference being obvious). Women therefore cannot be associated with miracles, and are therefore purveyors of magic. These are of course broad sweeping generalizations to be making, however I think the distinction between magic and miracles being a gender distinction is more prevalent in this text then any of the previous ones we have read. (The nigromancer – what is that play on words? – being the foreign exception. Could we argue that he is somewhat feminized? The use of the word ‘Arte’, previously only used in relation to women, and his reliance of trickery and temptation is somewhat reminiscent of previous enchantresses...but I don’t want to muddy my argument. Let’s save that for discussion.) Marina
It is very clear that Johnson prefers miracles over magic. There are two main characters that practice magic, the enchantress Kalyb and the Negromancer Osmond. Both are associated with magic and are described as wicked and fell. Both are enemies to the nobility and Christians. They both use human desires and fantasies to try to get what they want. Kalyb wants S. George to fulfill her desires and offers him power in exchange for this fulfillment. Osmond uses the desires of men to try and trap the Christian knights with spirits that look like virgins. Both characters become trapped by the knights, Kalyb in the rock and Osmond tied to the tree. They both also succumb to gruesome ends that they enact on themselves, both paying particular attention on the dismemberment of their eyes (which saw how magic was performed and thus learned it), hands (which performed magic), and tongue (which spoke the spells and charms). Osmond also gives warning to the other performers of magic (sorcerers, charmers, witches, and fortune tellers) but also to scholars learned at universities, which may mean Johnson associates book learning with the evil of magic. He also associates the black magic with the pagans as Osmond is in the service of the Persians (who are evil too).
Miracles on the other hand are readily accepted and performed with unusual speed. In one instance S. George prayed to God to give him strength and agility to slay the dragon. Immediately after he strikes the dragon and kills him. Another example is when Sabra is about to be raped and eaten by the giant. She prays to God to defend her chastity from the giant and again immediately following her prayer a poisonous toad appears before her, whose venom deforms her to make her unappitizing and saves her.
So in short the message is that if you pray to God for help, miracles will happen but if you try to use magic to achieve your ends you will be trapped and eventually destroyed.
I think that the lines between magic and miracle are extremely blurred and I had a hard time isolating instances where the two are distinctly separate. I know that a miracle is supposed to be a work of God and I also noticed as many of you did that the association with magic seemed to be treated as bad whereas miracle was obviously supposed to carry a positive connotation because it was associated with God. However, where the two become blurred in my mind is in the reaction and treatment of them within the text. There seems to be an exoticism of both magic and miracles. Johnson expects the reader to marvel at both the magical and the miraculous whether they were good or bad. I didn’t get the sense that the miracles were the result of a close relationship with God. Rather it seemed that they were coincidental happenings designed to extricate the hero from a sticky situation and a convenient way of explaining the miracle that occurred in a positive way. Just touching on what Valerie said that she believe that “Johnson is informing the reader that not having a strong faith in the Christian God is not bad but it is important to have faith in ourselves as individuals”. To me the miracle is depicted as a miracle within a text laden with many fantastical elements because of the negative and pagan associations with magic.
16 comments:
Johnson seems to be completely open and ready to accept the idea of miracles; The Seven Champions is littered with miraculous incidents and Johnson uses miracles in order to get his hero and heroine out of a variety of compromising positions. When Sabra and the Evenuke are cornered by two lions (and Evenuke is kelled by them), Sabra is spared only because she is still a virgin and by nature, the lion does not "harme the unspotted virgin, but humbly lay[s] his brisled heade upon a maidens lappe" (Johnson 76). Later on, when the seven virgins are ravished and murdered by the giant, Sabra once again avoids danger by squeezing a toad to death, causing its vemon to squirt all over her face, giving her blisters and causing her to look as if she had leprosy. Johnson continually puts Sabra in the face of danger, possibly for suspense purposes, and uses miraculous coincidences to save her. This makes for an entertaining story, and Johnson undoubtedly realized the appeal of miracles in his text.
Johnson’s attitude would appear to be that miracles are associated with the Christian God; when someone is doing His will, there is nothing that can stand against him/her. For example, when Saint George goes to Persia and gets upset over the pagan rituals being performed, he is given miraculous strength and courage and is able to kill thousands of men even though he himself is only one man. This miraculous event is explained as being a just and righteous cause because Saint George is fighting against heathens and unbelievers, and their pagan gods. This event seems to show that the Christian God is stronger and more powerful than the pagan gods of Egypt and Persia.
In contrast to miracle, magic seems to be something associated with pagan worship and is something to be used for evil purposes. For example, the tower built with the art of magic by a cunning Nigromancer in the country of the Amazonians. This tower is a thing of evil that is choking the land and quenching “the brightnes of the Skye” (Johnson, 116). Magic, although powerful, can still be defeated by the power of the Christian God as seen when Saint George breaks the magic spell in the name of the Lord. This mingling of magic and miracle seems to be Johnson’s way of proving that God and the miraculous are more powerful than magic and therefore that is where your faith should be.
In one of our first few lectures we defined magic as being a human intervention and miracle as an intervention from God. Richard Johnson accepts both magic and miracle throughout his text and I agree with Kathryn in that Johnson often associates miracles with the Christian God, and the heroes such as Saint George and associates magic with those who are evil, such as Kalyb, the Lady of the woods who keeps the Champions of Christendome imprisoned.
However, I believe that Johnson also points out that there is a blur between magic and miracle and that they can not always be separated into one being good and the other evil. For example Saint George first tries to slay the dragon himself (13) but is not successful, and it is only when he kneels down and prays for strength and agility of body from God (14) that he is able to defeat the dragon. Therefore it is a miracle from God that helps him slay the dragon, but Saint George also would not have been victorious without that use of magic when he eats the magical fruit that restores his health (13). In this case Richard seems to be saying that magic can also be good and that magic and miracles can be used together for good. If magic is a human intervention and miracle is an intervention from God, then by having Saint George use both magic and miracle Richard seems to be saying that humans and God should work together for the greater good, rather than humans just relying on God for everything.
I agree with the idea that there is a blur between magic and miracle in the text. I think this is specifically evident in the character of Sabra when she is trying to escape from the giant (121). It is described that Sabra is “making her supplication to the Gods” and “that they would in mercie defend her chastetie”. At this point Sabra is hoping (or praying?) for a miracle, and looks to divine inspiration. Upon Sabra’s words to God, she sees a toad and uses the toad’s venom to cause “loathsome blisters” to develop on her face. Since divine inspiration appears to assist Sabra in this particular situation, it can be suggested that it is a “miracle”. After the giant leaves, Sabra then pleads with God to “rid [her] from the vale of miserie,” expressing that she is “disformed,” and will remain in the grove “till the heavens either bring mee to my former beauty or ende my languishing misery”. In this instance, rather than being thankful to God for granting a “miracle” and saving her from the giant, Sabra is more concerned with her vanity. By the end of the chapter, however, it is described how the “Amazonian Queene had cured her leprosie by the secret virtue of her skill” (123). I think that because the word “skill” is used in this description, it suggests an act of “manipulation” and a sense of “human intervention” rather than “divine inspiration” (indicating “magic” rather than “miracle”). Does this mean that Sabra has given up on miracles (or God) and resorted to the use of magic? Or does it relate back to the suggestion that it is hard to determine the difference between miracle and magic?
I think that Debra brings up an interesting point, wondering whether SAbra has given up on God and resorted to magic. THroughout the text I found that besides alluding to her preserved virginity, Sabra does not really seem that spiritual a person. Johnson has St. George constantly praying to and praising God for his help and guidance, and thanks him for getting him out of the various dangerous situations he gets himself into. Sabra, on the other hand, does not ever seem to thank God for helping her out of danger, but rather concentrates her gratitude on her knight, St. George. Sabra does not seem like a very spiritual person; she is far too concerned with preserving her virginity than her relationship with God.
I agree with the idea that Johnson has blurred the lines between magic and miracle. As well that at certain times one helps out the other so that the characters can overcome the challenges that have been put in his or hers way.
On the other hand the way that Johnson writes about Kalyb seems to illustrate to the reader that there will come a day when not having some faith or belief in God could be detrimental to one self. For example once Kalyb has been imprisoned by Saint George, it seems that she is being punished for having invested so much time in the world of magic and turning away from God. Not only had she turned to a life of magic but she also imprisoned both Saints/ national hero’s which would seem to be frowned upon especially since Saints and national hero’s were held in high regard. Johnson balances the idea of believing in magic and miracles and shows that both have a place were they are needed.
Johnson seems to play with the idea of miracle and magic within his text. It is apparent that Johnson associated miracles with the Christian God and magic with strongly associated with pagan worship. Both miracle and magic require some sort of force from another world, both can be used for the purpose of good and magic can be used for an evil purpose. Both miracle and magic are needed as a means of testing the free will of the mortals and separating the heroes from the drifters.
Johnson seems to play with the idea of magic and miracles yet focuses on only good power will rest in the hands of God. It is important to note the undeniable devotion Saint George has as he relentlessly prays before God and praises him and honours him when there is good fortune in his life. The question of devotion arises as Jessica has mentioned that Sabra is not a very spiritual person and focuses on the power of magic, yet she concerns herself with the preservation of her virginity. I can not help but feel as though Johnson maybe trying to address the changing religious perspectives in the world. To me Johnson is informing the reader that not having a strong faith in the Christian God is not bad, however it is important to have faith in ourselves as individuals as there is a place in this world for all types of spiritual belief. In addition, Sabra engages with magic rather than miracles and faith, yet she still honours Saint George, can this be considered as her saving grace?
I agree with the idea that miracles are associated with God and good, while magic has a more negative connotation. Magic often seems to be associated with power, and perhaps Johnson is trying to point out that too much power can be destructive. Also, magic can forsake you, while God and miracles do not. Kalyb, for example, is bound in a rock that she put a spell on, and Osmond’s conjured spirits abandon him when they are defeated
It is not always easy to differentiate between good and evil and this story questions a person’s trust with things unnatural and natural. Often, good is associated with the natural and bad with unnatural. Natural beings, like lions and tigers are just as dangerous as the dragon and the giant who are unnatural (at the same time, the magical orange tree is also unnatural but it saves Saint George). Because George does not slay the giant, he shows that he trusts him enough to be his servant. His trust is betrayed when he finds that the giant raped and killed seven maids and was about to do the same to Sabra. George kills the lions that have come to Sabra and killed the Eunuke, even though they have done Sabra no harm. This shows that it is difficult to decipher between good and evil in terms of natural and unnatural and it may be dangerous to put trust in either. Johnson’s blending of the two, like the blending of magic and miracle, makes the reader question what is true and good.
Although I agree that Johnson is open to magic or miracles I also agree with those who argue that in the name of God miracles occur. My favourite moment of a God miracle is when George is under the orange tree while fighting the dragon and eating the fruit is what saves him-is this perhaps an inverse of original sin? Since the fruit cured him with its good magic? The national heroes definitely resemble a romance hero (Johnson even says at one point that they suited up like wandering heroes) and they fight pagan magic with christian miracles. That would be the distinction I would make. The inchantress for instance is an example of pagan magic defeated by a christian miracle (George himself). When she is dismembered and scattered throughout the forest she turns the woods into an evil place, thus showing the debased nature of her pagan magic. The pagan imagery that is scattered throughout seems to be for the purposes of tropes and story-telling. In other words, though there is pagan imagery used to tell the story, it is used for that purpose specifically-tropes, which add to the narrative.
I agree with Marianne that Johnson blurs the divide between magic and miracle, and would like to take her argument further. Continuing on Marianne’s examples of the magic of the orange tree and the prayer to god that helped Saint George slay the dragon, one can see how Johnson makes a definitive distinction between the powers of magic and the powers of god. Yet the lines are once again blurred in this scene because of the questionable outcome of whether it was the magic of the oranges that helped Saint George recover enough times to continue to slay the dragon, or whether it was the power of God guiding him.
The question that needs to be addressed is whether the Orange tree is magic or miracle. Given the information that the “tree had such pretious virtue, that no venomous worme durst come within the compasse of the branches” (13) which revives the knights spirits, one could question whether the tree is a gift of god, that contains such virtue and goodness that it can resurrect the knight from certain death. Alternatively the tree contains magical properties that prevent the dragon from coming close to it, yet has many evil implications derived from the bible. In the story of Adam and Eve, the apple tree is the tree of knowledge of good and evil that will surely bring death to whomever eats it. Similarly, in The Seven Champions of Christendom, a fruit tree is given powerful properties to revive the knight, and after being revived once, and damaged shortly after, it is knowledge or “good memorie remaining” (13) that allows the knight to remember the reviving qualities of the fruit so that he may eat again and have the strength to destroy the dragon. The dragon itself is also called a “worme” (13), which gives it the image of an evil serpent or snake like creature. As the fruit only rejuvenates the knight, and does not aid his strength in slaying the dragon, one will understand that it is the power of God that gives the knight enough strength to slay the dragon, seeing as the knight fails every attempt after only eating the fruit. Thus we can see how although magic and miracle both share powerful properties, miracle is the ultimate higher power because miracle is always deemed to be good, and destroyer of evil, whereas magic can be either a property for good or evil in this text.
I agree with Lucy's point on magic being related to power. For Johnson magic, as its in humans control, can be taken by anyone, though mostly with evil connotations. Miracle on the other hand is given only to those that deserve and well as proving that they deserve it. Saint George "defeats" Kalybs and is rewarded with the "miracle" orange that helps him fight the dragon.
Kalybs is quite literally trapped by her own magic and is the reason for her death. The unpure, sinful nature of magic thus will result in the user's own destruction, whereas miracle helps to save the person.
Some of Saint George's "miracles" especially those in Persia, look to both the Soldan and to me, quite monsterous. Being able to rip the heart out of the Lions throats and kill all those men, seems less miraculous and more magical. Although Johnson sets up a binary between what is magic (evil) and what is miracle (good), they seem to blend more as the story unfolds.
Johnson's text is filled with allusions to pagan gods and it appears that these allusions tend to overlap or blur with allusions of the Christian God.
At the beginning of the Seven Champions of Christendom it is said that Saint George was created by nature and conceived of a dragon. While the idea of Saint George being created by nature can be related to the Christian God the idea of the dragon seems to be magical as this dragon is later described as evil.
Further reference to magic is visble when Kalyb steals Saint George by the use of witchcraft as well as when Saint George himself uses a wand to trap Kalyb in a stone. Through Saint George's use of the wand and Kalyb saying "woe to all my Magicke spels: for they have bound me in this hollowe rock" (10)we can see magic as both a negative and a positive thing. On one hand magic traps Kalyb in the stone, which is bad for Kalyb, but on the other Saint George is able to rid himself of Kalyb through the use of magic, which shows magic as being a useful tool. Additionally the pearl necklace that Sabra wears to protect her virginity can be seen as positive.
In addition the use of the orange tree as a safe haven utilizes nature or God as a protector, but nature is not always shown in this light. This other side of nature is visible when Saint Dennis the Champion of France is transformed into a deformed beast when he eats berries off of a tree.
Thus through revealing positive and negative aspects of both nature and magic Johnson appears to believe that magic can be good or bad depending on how it is used. Thus it does not appear that Johnson condemns magic or views it as evil, but instead sees that there can be both negative and positive means of perceiving it.
In Johnson's text, we see a free mingling of allusions to both pagan gods and the Christian God as well as a blurring between saints and national heroes. What seems to be the Richard Johnson's attitude towards magic or miracle?
Johnson seems to incorporate his attitude towards magic and miracle in this text. I find that in chapter one of the text we get many allusions to magic; he speaks of the mystical oracle and enchanted cave (7) as he sets the introduction of story. He then starts to show us the transition from magic to miracle. I agree with the others that miracle is associated with a Christian god. On page 11, we see Kalybs turn from magic: “Kalybs charmes tooke no effect, for her Magick no longer indured,” to religion: “therefore in fearfull manner she began to make her Will and latest Testament.” (11) I interpreted this as fear being a motivating factor for this character to turn to religion, much like the way we turn to miracles to help us out of uncontrollable situations. I also like how Candace observed the connection between the orange tree and the apple tree of Eden. I found this ironic that eating the orange saved him, when eating the apple condemned Eden to a lifetime of original sin. Also, was the fruit a symbol of a miracle and the dragon symbolic of magic? If so, did George’s victory prove that a miracle is stronger than magic? Or that religion is stronger than paganism?
I have a real sense of Johnson’s attitude as not so much ‘blurring the lines’ and more of an appropriation. Johnson has an apparent fondness for the old legends and romances (Greek myths and Arthurian) that he can’t resist adopting into his text – it’s an attempt to redeem what might otherwise be seen as the pagan elements of the story. One clear distinction between miracles and magic is the gender of the user. Magic is largely in the hands of misguided women, who are consequently subject to “the judgments of the heavens” (77). As Marianne and Sharlene note, magic oranges are pretty suspect, yet they are considered Godly Miracles, likely because it was St. George and his horse and not...Kalyb for example, that needed help [even though it was Kalyb who gave George the ‘virtuous steed’ (79)]. In this text we start to see a real differentiation between gender balances that associates ‘bad/evil magic’ with women. In previous texts the gender association has been one of crossing boundaries – women taking men’s power. In this text the women are permitted their own power that is on par with men (does Kalyb do anything really repulsive, beyond taking the baby?) however it is automatically ‘magic’ and not ‘miracle’ and therefore punishable. In this manner Johnson is able to incorporate the fantastic, the romance, into his story without completely making it acceptable – which to readers in the time would be shocking. Instead he puts what is unacceptable in the hands of the weaker sex. Note the differentiation between where “the lamp of Heaven doth lend his light, before he tie himself to the troublesome state of marriage” (80). Women don’t understand value, as “thy body is more precious to myne eyes than Kingdoms in my heart” (80) (the religious reference being obvious). Women therefore cannot be associated with miracles, and are therefore purveyors of magic. These are of course broad sweeping generalizations to be making, however I think the distinction between magic and miracles being a gender distinction is more prevalent in this text then any of the previous ones we have read. (The nigromancer – what is that play on words? – being the foreign exception. Could we argue that he is somewhat feminized? The use of the word ‘Arte’, previously only used in relation to women, and his reliance of trickery and temptation is somewhat reminiscent of previous enchantresses...but I don’t want to muddy my argument. Let’s save that for discussion.)
Marina
It is very clear that Johnson prefers miracles over magic. There are two main characters that practice magic, the enchantress Kalyb and the Negromancer Osmond. Both are associated with magic and are described as wicked and fell. Both are enemies to the nobility and Christians. They both use human desires and fantasies to try to get what they want. Kalyb wants S. George to fulfill her desires and offers him power in exchange for this fulfillment. Osmond uses the desires of men to try and trap the Christian knights with spirits that look like virgins. Both characters become trapped by the knights, Kalyb in the rock and Osmond tied to the tree. They both also succumb to gruesome ends that they enact on themselves, both paying particular attention on the dismemberment of their eyes (which saw how magic was performed and thus learned it), hands (which performed magic), and tongue (which spoke the spells and charms). Osmond also gives warning to the other performers of magic (sorcerers, charmers, witches, and fortune tellers) but also to scholars learned at universities, which may mean Johnson associates book learning with the evil of magic. He also associates the black magic with the pagans as Osmond is in the service of the Persians (who are evil too).
Miracles on the other hand are readily accepted and performed with unusual speed. In one instance S. George prayed to God to give him strength and agility to slay the dragon. Immediately after he strikes the dragon and kills him. Another example is when Sabra is about to be raped and eaten by the giant. She prays to God to defend her chastity from the giant and again immediately following her prayer a poisonous toad appears before her, whose venom deforms her to make her unappitizing and saves her.
So in short the message is that if you pray to God for help, miracles will happen but if you try to use magic to achieve your ends you will be trapped and eventually destroyed.
POST FROM MAUREEN:
I think that the lines between magic and miracle are extremely blurred and I
had a hard time isolating instances where the two are distinctly separate.
I know that a miracle is supposed to be a work of God and I also noticed as
many of you did that the association with magic seemed to be treated as bad
whereas miracle was obviously supposed to carry a positive connotation
because it was associated with God. However, where the two become blurred
in my mind is in the reaction and treatment of them within the text. There
seems to be an exoticism of both magic and miracles. Johnson expects the
reader to marvel at both the magical and the miraculous whether they were
good or bad. I didn’t get the sense that the miracles were the result of a
close relationship with God. Rather it seemed that they were coincidental
happenings designed to extricate the hero from a sticky situation and a
convenient way of explaining the miracle that occurred in a positive way.
Just touching on what Valerie said that she believe that “Johnson is
informing the reader that not having a strong faith in the Christian God is
not bad but it is important to have faith in ourselves as individuals”. To
me the miracle is depicted as a miracle within a text laden with many
fantastical elements because of the negative and pagan associations with magic.
POST FROM MAUREEN
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